Alexander Hamilton, Federalist No. 60, February 23, 1788: "Its authority would be expressly restricted to the regulation of the times, the places, and the manner of elections. The qualifications of the persons who may choose or be chosen are defined and fixed in the constitution; and are unalterable by the legislature." Madison, Federalist No. 62, February 27, 1788, listed three qualifications and stopped. The convention debated property requirements, religious tests, and district residency. They chose three. The Federal Farmer, the leading Anti-Federalist critic of the Constitution, was furious about the qualifications clause. He complained that the Constitution allows "pagans," "convicts," and "beggars" to serve in Congress. He wanted property requirements and religious qualifications. He was angry because the list was exhaustive and he knew it. Adding more qualifications required a constitutional amendment. John Dickinson at the Constitutional Convention opposed listing any qualifications at all. Farrand's Records: he argued that enumerating some would "by implication tie up the hands of the Legislature from supplying the omissions." The convention listed three anyway. Dickinson was right about the consequence. Chief Justice Earl Warren, Powell v. McCormack, 1969: "In judging the qualifications of its members Congress is limited to the standing qualifications prescribed in the Constitution." Justice John Paul Stevens, US Term Limits v. Thornton, 1995: "The Framers intended the Constitution to be the exclusive source of qualifications for members of Congress, and that the Framers thereby divested States of any power to add qualifications." The current Supreme Court uses originalist interpretation. Originalism means you read the Federalist Papers and the Anti-Federalist Papers to find the founders' intent. Hamilton, Madison, the Federal Farmer, and Dickinson all understood Article I the same way. Warren confirmed it in 1969. Stevens confirmed it in 1995. Two Alaska courts confirmed it in June 2026. The photos above are from The Heritage Foundation's own constitutional reference. This is the conservative movement's own legal scholarship. The list has not changed since February 27, 1788.

Worth naming: Heather McElwain is running for U.S. Senate as a Libertarian write-in. Jim McDermott is on the ballot for U.S. House. "Only two viable candidates" is the system deciding instead Alaskan voters.