The Arab world made foundational contributions to global civilization, science, mathematics, and the arts—particularly between the 7th and 13th centuries—as detailed by the Arab American National Museum and the Arab American Anti-Discrimination Committee. Mathematics and Science Algebra and Algorithms: Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi founded algebra (derived from al-jabr) and introduced systematic methods that shaped modern mathematics and computer science. Numerals and Zero: Scholars popularized and spread the Hindu-Arabic numeral system, the decimal system, and the concept of zero (sifr) to the Western world. Optics: Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) pioneered the modern scientific method and wrote the Book of Optics, explaining image formation and the mechanics of the camera obscura. Chemistry: Early chemists like Jabir ibn Hayyan and Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi classified chemical substances and refined laboratory processes like distillation using the alembic. Medicine and Health Medical Encyclopedias: Ibn Sina (Avicenna) wrote The Canon of Medicine, an authoritative medical reference used across Europe and the Islamic world for centuries. Contagion and Diagnosis: Al-Razi (Rhazes) provided the first accurate clinical differentiation and diagnosis of smallpox and measles, while also advancing contagion theories. Circulation: Ibn al-Nafis first described pulmonary circulation (how blood flows through the lungs). Surgery: Al-Zahrawi produced comprehensive surgical encyclopedias, inventing numerous surgical instruments and techniques like vascular ligation. Astronomy and Navigation Astronomy: Astronomers improved the astrolabe with angular scales and azimuth circles, compiled exact star charts, and calculated latitude and longitude. Earth's Measurements: Scholars such as Al-Biruni theorized the rotation of the Earth and accurately calculated its radius. Geography and Atlases: Al-Idrisi compiled detailed world maps and geographical atlases for King Roger II of Sicily, while Ibn Battuta documented extensive travel across Asia and Africa. Architecture, Arts, and Music Architecture: Builders developed horseshoe and pointed arches, ornate geometric designs, intricate arabesques, and towering minarets. Music: The development of the oud (a short-neck lute) heavily influenced the evolution of stringed instruments like the European lute and guitar. Knowledge Preservation: Institutions like Baghdad's House of Wisdom translated, expanded, and preserved classical Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian scientific texts. (Note: On public forums like Quora, opinions are mixed regarding the distinction between ethnic Arab scholars and non-Arab polymaths from the broader Islamic empire who wrote in Arabic.)